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[[Араб әліппесі]]нің тарихы араб жазу жүйесі [[абджәд]]тың уақыт өте өзгергенін көрсетеді.
<!-- has changed since it arose. It is thought that the Arabic alphabet is a derivative of the [[Nabataean alphabet|Nabataean]] variation of the [[Aramaic alphabet]], which descended from the [[Phoenician alphabet]], which among others gave rise to the [[Hebrew alphabet]] and the [[Greek alphabet]] (and therefore the [[Cyrillic]] and [[Latin alphabet|Roman]] [[alphabet]]s).
==Origins==
The Arabic alphabet evolved either from the Nabataean, or (less widely believed) from the Syriac. This table shows changes undergone by the shapes of the letters from the Aramaic original to the Nabataean and Syriac forms. Arabic is placed in the middle for clarity and not to mark a time order of evolution. It should be noted that the Arabic script represented in the table below is that of post-Classical and Modern Arabic, not 6th century Arabic script which is of a notably different form.
It seems that the Nabataean alphabet became the Arabic alphabet thus:
*In the 6th and 5th centuries BC, north-Semitic tribes emigrated and founded a kingdom centered around [[Petra]], [[Jordan]]. These people (now named Nabataeans from the name of one of the tribes, Naba?u), probably spoke a form of Arabic.
*In the 2nd century AD{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}}, the first known records of the Nabataean alphabet were written, in the Aramaic language (which was the language of communication and trade), but including some Arabic language features: the Nabataeans did not write the language which they spoke. They wrote in a form of the Aramaic alphabet, which continued to evolve; it separated into two forms: one intended for [[inscription]]s (known as "monumental Nabataean") and the other, more cursive and hurriedly written and with joined letters, for writing on [[papyrus]]. This cursive form influenced the monumental form more and more and gradually changed into the Arabic alphabet.
==Pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions==
[[File:WadiRumPetroglyphs.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Petroglyph]]s in [[Wadi Rum]] ([[Jordan]])]]
The first recorded text in the Arabic alphabet was written in 512. It is a trilingual dedication in [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Syriac language|Syriac]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] found at Zabad in [[Syria]]. The version of the Arabic alphabet used includes only 22 letters, of which only 15 are different, being used to note 28 [[phoneme]]s:-
<center>[[Image:Aram nabat arab syriac.png]]</center>
:*Note that the letters in the first line are not Aramaic letters but rather the [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet]].
Around 50,000 Arabian inscriptions survive from the pre-[[Islam]]ic era, most of which are in [[Ancient North Arabian]] languages. However these are written in alphabets borrowed from [[epigraphic South Arabian]] alphabets. Such as:
*The [[Thamudic]], [[Lihyanic]], [[Taymanitic]], [[Dumaitic]] and [[Safaitic]] inscriptions in the north.
*[[Hasaitic]] in the eastern part of Arabia
*[[Hismaic]] in the southern parts of central Arabia.
Preclassical and [[Classical Arabic]] are attested in only a small number of inscriptions, and even fewer are in the [[Arabic alphabet]]. For example:
*Preclassical Arabic inscriptions dating to the 1st century BC from Qaryat Al-Faw, written in [[Epigraphic South Arabian]] alphabets.
*[[Nabataean]] inscriptions in [[Aramic language|Aramaic]] and Arabic. Written in Nabatean alphabets.
*Pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions in the [[Arabic alphabet]]: these are very few, with only 5 known for certain. These mostly do not use dots, making them sometimes difficult to interpret, as many letters are the same shape as other letters. I.e. they are written with [[rasm]] only.
<br>Here are the inscriptions in the Arabic alphabet, and the inscriptions in the Nabataean alphabet that show the beginnings of Arabic-like features.
{| cellspacing="0" border="1" bgcolor="white"
|-
!Name
!Whereabouts
!Date
!Language
!Alphabet
!Text & notes
|-
|Qaryat Al-Faw
|[[Wadi ad-Dawasir]], [[Nejd]]
|1st century BC
|10 lines in Arabic
|[[Epigraphic South Arabian]] alphabets
|A tomb dedicatory and a prayer to Lāh, Kāhil and ʻaṯṯār to protect the tomb
|-
|[[En Avdat]]
|[[Negev]] in [[Israel]]
|between AD 88 and 150
|4 lines Aramaic, then 2 lines Arabic
|Nabataean with a little letter-joining
|prayer of thanks to the god Obodas for saving someone's life
|-
|[[Umm el-Jimal]]
|northeast of [[Jordan]]
|roughly end of 3rd century
|Aramaic-Nabataean
|Nabataean, much letter-joining
|also [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], more than 50 fragments discovered [http://jss.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/51/2/267]
|-
|Raqush ''(this is not a place-name)''
|[[Mada'in Saleh]] in [[Saudi Arabia]]
|267
|mixture of Arabic and Aramaic, 1 vertical line in [[Thamudic]]
|Nabataean, some letter-joining. Has a few diacritic dots.
|Last inscription in Nabataean language. [[Epitaph]] to one Raqush, including [[curse]] against grave-violaters.
|-
|[[Namara inscription|an-Namāra]]
|100 km SE of [[Damascus]]
|328-329
|Arabic
|Nabataean, more letter-joining than previous
|a long [[epitaph]] for the famous Arab poet and war-leader [[Imru'ul-Qays]], describing his war deeds
|-
|[[Jabal Ramm]]
|50 km east of [[Aqaba]], [[Jordan]]
|3rd or likelier late 4th century
|3 lines in Arabic, 1 bent line in [[Thamudic]]
|Arabic. Has some diacritic dots.
|In a temple of [[Allat]]. Boast or thanks of an energetic man who made his fortune.
|-
|[[Sakakah]]
|in Saudi Arabia
|undated
|Arabic
|Arabic, some Nabataean features, & dots
|short; reading unclear
|-
|[[Sakakah]]
|in Saudi Arabia
|3rd or 4th century
|Arabic
|Arabic
|"Hama son of Garm"
|-
|[[Sakakah]]
|in Saudi Arabia
|4th century
|Arabic
|Arabic
|"B-`-s-w son of `Abd-Imru'-al-Qais son of Mal(i)k"
|-
|[[Umm al-Jimāl]]
|northeast of [[Jordan]]
|4th or 5th century
|Arabic
|similar to Arabic
|<small>"This was set up by colleagues of 'Ulayh son of `Ubaydah, secretary of the [[Cohort (military unit)|cohort]] Augusta Secunda [[Filadelfia, Vibo Valentia|Philadelphia]]na; may he go mad who effaces it."</small>
|-
|[[Zabad, Syria|Zabad]]
|in [[Syria]], south of [[Aleppo]]
|512
|Arabic
|Arabic
|Also [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] and [[Syriac]]. Christian dedicatory. The Arabic says "[[God]]'s help" & 6 names. "God" is written as {{lang|ar| الاله }}, see [[Allah#Typography]].
|-
|[[Jabal Usays]]
|in Syria
|528
|Arabic
|Arabic
|Record of a military expedition by one Ibrahim ibn Mughirah on behalf of the king al-Harith (presumably [[Al-Harith ibn Jabalah]] ([[Arethas]] in Greek), king of the [[Ghassanid]] vassals of the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]]s)
|-
|[[Harrān]]
|in Leija district, south of [[Damascus]]
|568
|Arabic
|Arabic
|Also [[Greek alphabet|Greek]]. [[Christian]] [[dedication|dedicatory]], in a [[martyrium (architecture)|martyrium]]. It records Sharahil ibn Zalim building the martyrium a year after the destruction of [[Khaybar]].
|}
Cursive Nabataean writing changed into Arabic writing, likeliest between the dates of the an-Namāra inscription and the Jabal Ramm inscription. Most writing would have been on perishable materials, such as papyrus. As it was cursive, it was liable to change. The [[epigraph (archeology)|epigraph]]ic record is extremely sparse, with only five certainly [[pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions]] surviving, though some others may be pre-Islamic.
The Nabataean alphabet was designed to write 22 [[phoneme]]s, but Arabic has 28 phonemes; thus, when used to write the Arabic language, 6 of its letters must each represent two phonemes:
<br>''d'' also represented ''ð'',
<br>''ħ'' also represented ''kh'' '''%''',
<br>''ṭ'' also represented ''ẓ'',
<br>''ayin'' also represented ''gh'' '''%''',
<br>''ṣ'' also represented ''ḍ'','''%''',
<br>''t'' also represented ''þ''.
<br>: In the cases marked '''%''', the choice was influenced by [[etymology]], as Common Semitic ''kh'' and ''gh'' became Hebrew ''ħ'' and ''[[ayin]]'' respectively.
As cursive Nabataean writing evolved into Arabic writing, the writing became largely joined-up. Some the letters became the same shape as other letters, producing more ambiguities, as in the table:
[[Image:Arabe arch.png]]
{{see also|rasm}}
There the Arabic letters are listed in the traditional Levantine order but are written in their current forms, for simplicity. The letters which are the same shape have coloured backgrounds. The second value of the letters that represent more than one [[phoneme]] is after a comma. In these tables, ''ğ'' is ''j'' as in English "June".
<br>In the Arabic language, the ''g'' sound seems to have changed into ''j'' in fairly late pre-Islamic times, and seems not to have happened in those tribes who invaded [[Egypt]] and settled there.
When a letter was at the end of a word, it often developed an end loop, and as a result most Arabic letters have two or more shapes.
<br>''b'' and ''n'' and ''t'' became the same.
<br>''y'' became the same as ''b'' and ''n'' and ''t'' except at the ends of words.
<br>''j'' and ''ħ'' became the same.
<br>''z'' and ''r'' became the same.
<br>''s'' and ''sh'' became the same.
After all this, there were only 17 letters which are different in shape. One letter-shape represented 5 phonemes (''b t th n'' and sometimes ''y''), one represented 3 phonemes (''j ħ kh''), and 5 each represented 2 phonemes. Compare the Hebrew alphabet, as in the table at [[Image:Hebreu hist arabe.png]].
(An analogy can be the Roman alphabet uppercase letters '''I''' and '''J''': in the German [[Fraktur]] font they look the same but are officially different letters.)
==Early Islamic changes==
[[Image:D r nabat syriaque.png|thumb|right|Table comparing Nabataean and Syriac forms of /d/ and /r/]]
The Arabic alphabet is first attested in its classical form in the 7th century. See [[PERF 558]] for the first surviving Islamic Arabic writing.
In the 7th century, probably in the early years of [[Islam]] while writing down the [[Qur'an]], scribes realized that working out which of the ambiguous letters a particular letter was from context was laborious and not always possible, so a proper remedy was required. Writings in the Nabataean and Syriac alphabets already had sporadic examples of dots being used to distinguish letters which had become identical, for example as in the table on the right. By analogy with this, a system of dots was added to the Arabic alphabet to make enough different letters for [[Classical Arabic]]'s 28 phonemes. Sometimes the resulting new letters were put in alphabetical order after their un-dotted originals, and sometimes at the end.
The first surviving document that definitely uses these dots is also the first surviving Arabic [[papyrus]] ([[PERF 558]]), dated April, 643. The dots did not become obligatory until much later. Important texts like the [[Qur'an]] were frequently [[memorization|memorized]]; this practice, which survives even today, probably arose partly to avoid the great ambiguity of the script, and partly due to the scarcity of books in times when [[printing]] was unheard-of in the area and every copy of every book had to be written by hand.
The alphabet then had 28 letters, and so could be used to write the numbers 1 to 10, then 20 to 100, then 200 to 900, then 1000 (see [[Abjad numerals]]). In this numerical order, the new letters were put at the end of the alphabet. This produced this order: alif (1), b (2), j (3), d (4), h (5), w (6), z (7), H (8), T (9), y (10), k (20), l (30), m (40), n (50), s (60), ayn (70), f (80), S (90), q (100), r (200), sh (300), t (400), th (500), dh (600), kh (700), D (800), Z (900), gh (1000).
The lack of vowel signs in Arabic writing created more ambiguities: for example, in [[Classical Arabic]] ''ktb'' could be ''kataba'' = "he wrote", ''kutiba'' = "it was written" or ''kutub''="books".
Later, vowel signs and [[hamza]]s were added, beginning some time in the last half of the 6th century, at about the same time as the first invention of Syriac and Hebrew [[Speech production|vocalization]]. Initially, this was done using a system of red dots, said to have been commissioned by an [[Umayyad]] governor of [[Iraq]], [[Hajjaj ibn Yusuf]]{{Citation needed|date=January 2012}}: a dot above = ''a'', a dot below = ''i'', a dot on the line = ''u'', and doubled dots giving ''[[tanwin]]''. However, this was cumbersome and easily confusable with the letter-distinguishing dots, so about 100 years later, the modern system was adopted. The system was finalized around 786 by [[al-Farahidi]].
Before the historical decree by [[Hajjaj ibn Yusuf]], all administrative texts were recorded by [[Persian people|Persian]] scribes in [[Middle Persian]] language using [[Pahlavi script]], but many of the initial orthographic alterations to the Arabic alphabet might have been proposed and implemented by the same scribes.
When new signs were added to the Arabic alphabet, they took the alphabetical order value of the letter which they were an alternative for: ''[[tā' marbūta]]'' (see also below) took the value of ordinary ''t'', and not of ''h''. In the same way, the many diacritics do not have any value: for example, a doubled consonant indicated by [[shadda]] does not count as a letter separate from the single one.
Some features of the Arabic alphabet arose because of differences between [[Qur'an]]ic spelling (which followed the [[Makkah|Meccan]] dialect pronunciation used by [[Muhammad]] and his first followers) and the standard [[Classical Arabic]]. These include:
*'''''tā' marbūta''''': This arose because the ''-at'' ending of feminine nouns ([[tā' marbūta]]) was often pronounced as ''-ah'' and written as ''h''. To avoid altering Quranic spelling, the dots of ''t'' were written over the ''h''.{{Citation needed|date=March 2008}}
*'''''y'' (alif maksura ى) used to spell ''ā'' at the ends of some words''': This arose because ''ā'' arising from [[sandhi|contraction]] where single ''y'' dropped out between vowels was in some dialects pronounced at the ends of words with the tongue further forward than for other ''ā'' vowels, and as a result in the Qu'ran it was written as ''y''.{{Clarify|date=March 2008}}{{Citation needed|date=March 2008}}
*'''''ā'' not written as [[aleph|alif]] in some words''': The Arabic spelling of ''[[Allah|Allāh]]'' was decided before the Arabs started using [[aleph|alif]] to spell ''ā''. In other cases (for example the first ''ā'' in ''hāðā'' = "this"), it may be that the Meccan dialect pronounced those vowels short.
*'''hamza''': Originally [[aleph|alif]] was used to spell the [[glottal stop]]. But Meccans did not pronounce the glottal stop{{Verify source|date=March 2008}}, replacing it with ''w'', ''y'' or nothing, lengthening an adjacent vowel, or, between vowels, dropping the glottal stop and contracting the vowels, and the Qur'an was written following Meccan pronunciation. The Arabic grammarians invented the [[hamza]] [[diacritic]] sign and used it to mark the glottal stop. ''Hamza'' is Arabic for "hook".
==Reorganization of the alphabet==
Less than a century later, Arab grammarians reorganized the alphabet, for reasons of teaching, putting letters next to other letters which were nearly the same shape. This produced a new order which was not the same as the numeric order, which became less important over time because it was being competed with by the [[Indian numerals]] and sometimes by the [[Greek numerals]].
The Arabic grammarians of North Africa changed the new letters, which explains the differences between the alphabets of the East and the [[Maghreb]].
<center>[[Image:Compare Arabic Hebrew etc.png]]</center>
(Greek ''waw'' = the original name of the [[digamma]])
The old alphabetical order, as in the other alphabets shown here, is known as the [[Levant]]ine or [[Abjadi order]]. If the letters are arranged by their numeric order, the Levantine order is restored:-
<center>[[Image:Compare Arabic Hebrew etc2.png]]</center>
(Greek ''waw'' = the original name of the [[digamma]])
(Note: here "numeric order" means the traditional values when these letters were used as numbers. See [[Hindu-Arabic numerals|Arabic numerals]], [[Greek numerals]] and [[Hebrew numerals]] for more details)
<br>This order is much the oldest. The first written records of the Arabic alphabet show why the order was changed.
==Adapting the Arabic alphabet for other languages==
{| class="wikitable" align="right"
|+By sound value
! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] !![[Persian language|Persian]] !! [[Urdu alphabet|Urdu]]!![[Jawi script|Malay]]!![[Arwi]]||[[Egypt]]
|-
| {{IPAlink|p}} ||colspan="2"| <big>{{lang|fa|پ}}</big> || <big>{{script/Arabic|ڤ}}</big> || <big>{{script/Arabic|ڣ}}</big> || <big>{{lang|ar|پ}}</big> ‎{{ref|1|[n]}}
|-
| {{IPAlink|t͡ʃ}} ||colspan="4"| <big>{{lang|fa|چ}}</big> || <big>{{lang|ar|تش}}</big>
|-
| {{IPAlink|ɡ}} ||colspan="2"| <big>{{lang|fa|گ}}</big> || <big>{{script/Arabic|ݢ}}</big> || {{lang|ar|ك}} with a dot below || <big>{{lang|ar|ج}}</big>
|-
| {{IPAlink|ʒ}} ||colspan="4"| <big>{{lang|fa|ژ}}</big> ||rowspan="2"| <big>{{lang|ar|چ}}</big> ‎{{ref|1|[n]}}
|-
| {{IPAlink|d͡ʒ}} ||colspan="4"| <big>{{lang|fa|ج}}</big>
|-
| {{IPAlink|ŋ}} ||colspan="2"| ||<big>{{script/Arabic|ڠ}}</big> || {{lang|ar|ع}} with three dots below ||
|-
| {{IPAlink|ɲ}} ||colspan="2"| || <big>{{script/Arabic|ڽ}}</big> || ||
|-
| {{IPAlink|v}} ||colspan="2"| <big>{{lang|fa|و}}</big> || <big>{{script/Arabic|ۏ}}</big> || || <big>{{lang|ar|ڤ}}</big> ‎{{ref|1|[n]}}
|-
|[[retroflex]]|| || small {{lang|ur|ط}} above || ||
|}
When the Arabic alphabet spread to countries which used other languages, extra letters had to be invented to spell non-Arabic sounds. Usually the alteration was three dots above or below:-
*[[Persian alphabet|Persian]] and [[Urdu]]: {{IPAslink|p}}: <big>{{lang|fa|پ}}</big>
*[[Persian alphabet|Persian]] and [[Urdu]]: {{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}}: <big>{{lang|fa|چ}}</big>
*[[Persian alphabet|Persian]] and [[Urdu]]: {{IPAslink|ɡ}}: <big>{{lang|fa|گ}}</big>
*[[Persian alphabet|Persian]] and [[Urdu]]: {{IPAslink|ʒ}}: <big>{{lang|fa|ژ}}</big>
*in [[Egypt]]: {{IPAslink|ɡ}}: <big>{{lang|ar|ج}}</big>. That is because Egyptian Arabic (and other dialects) have {{IPAslink|ɡ}} where other Arabic dialects have {{IPAslink|ʒ}}~{{IPAslink|d͡ʒ}}
*in [[Egypt]]: {{IPAslink|ʒ}}: <big>{{lang|ar|چ}}</big>, same as Persian and Urdu <big>{{lang|fa|چ}}</big>
*in [[Egypt]]: {{IPA|/tʃ/}}: written as <span dir="rtl"><big>{{lang|ar|ت}}</big>+<big>{{lang|ar|ش}}</big></span> and realized as {{IPAblink|t}}+{{IPAblink|ʃ}}
*[[Urdu]]: [[retroflex]] sounds: as the corresponding dentals but with a small letter ط above. (This problem in adapting a Semitic alphabet to write Indian languages also arose long before this: see [[Brāhmī script|Brahmi]])
*In South-East Asia: {{IPAslink|ŋ}} as in "sing": <big>{{script/Arabic|ڠ}}</big> or <big>{{script/Arabic|څ}}</big>
*{{refbegin}}{{note|1|}} Some letters are often used in transcriptions of names and loanwords, in Egypt and other Arabic speaking countries{{refend}}
*This book<ref>p.93, "The Koran, A Very Short Introduction" by Michael Cook, publ [[Oxford University Press]], 2000 AD, ISBN 0-19-285344-9</ref> shows an example of ''ch'' ([[Polish language|Polish]] ''cz'') being written as <big>{{script/Arabic|ڛ}}</big> in an Arabic-Polish [[bilingual]] [[Quran]] for Muslim [[Tatar]]s living in [[Poland]]
==Decline in use by non-Arabic states==
Since around the beginning of the 20th century, several non-Arabic-speaking countries have stopped using the Arabic script, often changing to the [[Latin alphabet]]. Examples include:-
{| cellspacing="0" border="1" bgcolor="white"
|-
!Area used
!Arabic spelling system
!New spelling system
!Date
!Ordered by whom
|-
|Some constituent republics in the [[Soviet Union]]
|[[Persian language|Persian]]-based spelling system, later [[Ottoman Turkish alphabet]] with alterations
|[[Cyrillic]]
|1920s (to [[Janalif]])<br>1930s (to Cyrillic)
|[[Soviet Union|USSR]] government
|-
|[[Indonesia]]<br>[[Malaysia]]<br>[[Philippines]]
|[[Jawi script]] (which is still widely used in [[Brunei]] and [[Patani]])
|[[Latin alphabet]]
|19th century
|[[British Empire|British]], [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] and [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] [[Colonialism|colonial administrations]]
|-
|[[Turkey]]
|[[Ottoman Turkish alphabet]]
|[[Turkish alphabet]]
|1928
|[[Republic of Turkey]] government after the fall of the [[Ottoman Empire]]
|}
-->
== Тағы қараңыз ==
* [[Абджәд]]
== Дереккөздер ==
<references/>
{{Араб тілі}}
==Сілттемелер==
{{Reflist}}
{{араб тілі}}
[[CategoryСанат:Араб жазуы]]
[[ar:تاريخ الأبجدية العربية]]
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