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[[Image:Quranic-arabic-corpus.png|right|250px|thumb|Араб тілі грамматикасының Құранның Мүлк сүресі мысалында көрсетілуі]]
'''Араб грамматикасы''' ({{lang-ar|نحو عربي}} ''нәху ʿараби'' немесе {{lang|ar|قواعد اللغة العربية}} ''қауāʿид әл-луғәһ әл-ʿарабияh}}'') [[Араб тілі]] грамматикасы. Араб тілі [[семит тілдері]]не жатады, сондықтан араб тілі грамматикасы өзге семит тілдерінің грамматиксына өте ұқсас.
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The article focuses both on the grammar of [[Literary Arabic]] (i.e. [[Classical Arabic]] and [[Modern Standard Arabic]], which have largely the same grammar) and of the colloquial spoken [[varieties of Arabic]]. The grammar of the two types is largely similar in its particulars. Generally, the grammar of Classical Arabic is described first, followed by the areas in which the colloquial variants tend to differ (note that not all colloquial variants have the same grammar). The largest differences between the two systems are the loss of [[grammatical case]]; the loss of the previous system of [[grammatical mood]], along with the evolution of a new system; the loss of the inflected [[passive voice]], except in a few relic varieties; and restriction in the use of the [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual number]].
==History==
The identity of the oldest Arabic grammarian is disputed: some sources state that it was [[Ibn Abi Ishaq|{{transl|ar|DIN|ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʾAbī ʾIsḥāq}}]] (died AD 735/6, [[Islamic calendar|AH]] 117), while [[medieval]] sources say [[Abu-Aswad al-Du'ali]] established [[diacritical]] marks and vowels for [[Arabic language|Arabic]] in the mid-600s. The schools of [[Basra]] and [[Kufa]] further developed grammatical rules in the late 700s with the rapid rise of Islam.<ref name="goodchild">Goodchild, Philip. ''Difference in Philosophy of Religion'', 2003. Page 153.</ref><ref name="old">Sayce, Archibald Henry. ''Introduction to the Science of Language'', 1880. Page 28.</ref>
==Division==
For classical Arabic grammarians, the grammatical sciences are divided into five branches:
*''{{transl|ar|DIN|al-luġah}}'' اللغة (language/lexicon) concerned with collecting and explaining vocabulary
*''{{transl|ar|DIN|at-taṣrīf}}'' التصريف (morphology) determining the form of the individual words
*''{{transl|ar|DIN|an-naḥw}}'' النحو (syntax) primarily concerned with inflection (''{{transl|ar|DIN|[[ʾiʿrāb]]}}'') which had already been lost in dialects.
*''{{transl|ar|DIN|al-ištiqāq}}'' الاشتقاق (derivation) examining the origin of the words
*''{{transl|ar|DIN|al-balāġah}}'' البلاغة (rhetoric) which elucidates construct{{clarify|date=August 2012}} quality
The grammar or grammars of contemporary [[varieties of Arabic]] are a different question. [[El-Said Badawi|Said M. Badawi]], an expert on Arabic grammar, divided Arabic grammar into five different types based on the speaker's level of [[literacy]] and the degree to which the speaker deviated from [[Classical Arabic]]. Badawi's five types of grammar from the most colloquial to the most formal are Illiterate Spoken Arabic (عامية الأميين {{transl|ar|DIN|ʿāmmiyyat al-ʾummiyyīn}}), Semi-literate Spoken Arabic (عامية المتنورين {{transl|ar|DIN|ʿāmmiyat al-mutanawwirīn}}), Educated Spoken Arabic (عامية المثقفين {{transl|ar|DIN|ʿāmmiyyat al-muṯaqqafīn}}), [[Modern Standard Arabic]] (فصحى العصر {{transl|ar|DIN|fuṣḥā l-ʿaṣr}}), and [[Classical Arabic]] (فصحى التراث {{transl|ar|DIN|fuṣḥā t-turāṯ}}).<ref>Alaa Elgibali and El-Said M. Badawi. ''Understanding Arabic: Essays in Contemporary Arabic Linguistics in Honor of El-Said M. Badawi'', 1996. Page 105.</ref> This article is concerned with the grammar of Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic exclusively.
==Phonology==
{{main|Arabic phonology}}
Classical Arabic has 28 [[consonant]]al [[phoneme]]s, including two [[semi-vowel]]s, which constitute the [[Arabic alphabet]]. It also has six [[vowel]] phonemes (three short vowels and three long vowels). These appear as various [[allophone]]s, depending on the preceding consonant. Short vowels are not usually represented in written language, although they may be indicated with diacritics.
''{{transl|ar|DIN|Hamzat al-waṣl}}'' (همزة الوصل), elidable ''hamza'', is a phonetic object prefixed to the beginning of a word for ease of pronunciation, since [[literary Arabic]] doesn't allow consonant clusters at the beginning of a word. Elidable ''hamza'' drops out as a vocal, if a word is preceding it. This word will then produce an ending vocal, "helping vocal" to facilitate pronunciation. This short vocal may be, depending on the preceding vowel, ـَ a ''{{transl|ar|DIN|fatḥah}}'' (فتحة) /a/, ـِ a ''{{transl|ar|DIN|kasrah}}'' (كسرة) {{IPA|/i/}} or {{lang|ar|ـُ}} a ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ḍammah}}'' (ضمة) {{IPA|/u/}}. If the preceding word ends in a ''{{transl|ar|DIN|sukūn}}'' (سكون) (i.e. not followed by a short vowel), the ''{{transl|ar|DIN|Hamzat al-waṣl}}'' assumes a ''{{transl|ar|DIN|kasrah}}'' {{IPA|/i/}}. Symbol ـّ ''{{transl|ar|DIN|šaddah}}'' (شدة) indicates a gemination or consonant doubling. See more in [[Tashkīl]].
==Nouns and adjectives==
{{main|Arabic nouns and adjectives}}
In Classical Arabic, nouns and adjectives are declined according to case, state, gender and number. In colloquial or spoken Arabic, there are number of simplifications such as loss of certain final vowels and loss of case. A number of derivational processes exist for forming new nouns and adjectives. Adverbs can be formed from adjectives.
==Pronouns==
===Personal pronouns===
In Arabic, [[personal pronoun]]s have 12 forms: In singular and plural, the 2nd and 3rd persons differentiate gender, while the 1st person does not. In the dual, there is no 1st person, and only a single form for each 2nd and 3rd person. Traditionally, the pronouns are listed in order 3rd, 2nd, 1st.
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=2|Person
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
! colspan=2|1st
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾanā}} ''(أنا)'' ''
| colspan=2 style="text-align: center;"|''{{transl|ar|DIN|naḥnu}} ''(نحن)'' ''
|-
! rowspan=2|2nd
!<small>masculine</small>
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾanta}} ''(أنت)'' ''
| rowspan=2|''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾantumā}} ''(أنتما)'' ''
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾantum}} ''(أنتم)'' ''
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾanti}} ''(أنت)'' ''
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾantunna}} ''(أنتنّ)'' ''
|-
! rowspan=2|3rd
!<small>masculine</small>
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|huwa}} ''(هو)'' ''
| rowspan=2|''{{transl|ar|DIN|humā}} (''هما)'' ''
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|hum}} ''(هم)'' ''
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|hiya}} ''(هي)'' ''
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|hunna}} ''(هنّ)'' ''
|-
|}
Informal Arabic tends to avoid the dual forms ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾantumā}}'' أنتما and ''{{transl|ar|DIN|humā}}'' هما. The feminine plural forms ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾantunna}}'' أنتنّ and ''{{transl|ar|DIN|hunna}}'' هنّ are likewise avoided, except by speakers of conservative colloquial varieties that still possess separate feminine plural pronouns.
====Enclitic pronouns====
[[Enclitic]] forms of personal pronouns ('''الضمائر المتصلة''' ''{{transl|ar|aḍ-ḍamāʾir al-muttaṣilah}}'') are affixed to various parts of speech, with varying meanings:
*To the [[construct state]] of nouns, where they have the meaning of possessive demonstratives, e.g. "my, your, his"
*To verbs, where they have the meaning of direct object pronouns, e.g. "me, you, him"
*To prepositions, where they have the meaning of objects of the prepositions, e.g. "to me, to you, to him"
*To conjunctions and particles like ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾanna}} "that ...", ''{{transl|ar|DIN|liʾanna}} "because ...", ''{{transl|ar|DIN|(wa)lākinna}}'' "but ...", ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾinna}}'' (topicalizing particle), where they have the meaning of ''subject'' pronouns, e.g. "because I ...", "because you ...", "because he ...". (These particles are known in Arabic as ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾaḫawāt ʾinna}}'' {{lang|ar|أخوات إنّ}} (lit. "sisters of {{transl|ar|DIN|ʾinna}}".)
Most of them are clearly related to the full personal pronouns.
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=2|Person
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
! colspan=2|1st
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-nī/-ī/-ya}} ''ـي'' ''
| colspan=2 style="text-align: center;"|''{{transl|ar|DIN|-nā}} ''ـنا'' ''
|-
!rowspan=2|2nd
!<small>masculine</small>
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-ka}} ''ـك'' ''
| rowspan=2| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-kumā}} ''ـكما'' ''
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-kum}} ''ـكم'' ''
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-ki}} ''ـك'' ''
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-kunna}} ''ـكن'' ''
|-
! rowspan=2|3rd
!<small>masculine</small>
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-hu/-hi}} ''ـه'' ''
| rowspan=2|''{{transl|ar|DIN|-humā/-himā}} ''ـهما'' ''
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-hum/-him}} ''ـهم'' ''
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-hā}} ''ـها'' ''
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-hunna/-hinna}} ''ـهن'' ''
|}
=====Variant forms=====
For all but the first person singular, the same forms are used regardless of the part of speech of the word attached to. In the third person masculine singular, ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-hu}}'' occurs after the vowels ending in ''u'' or ''a'' (''{{transl|ar|DIN|-a, -ā, -u, -ū, -aw}}''), while ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-hi}}'' occurs after vowels ending in ''i'' (''{{transl|ar|DIN|-i, -ī, -ay}}''). The same alternation occurs in the third person dual and plural.
In the first person singular, however, the situation is more complicated. Specifically, ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-nī}}'' "me" is attached to verbs, but ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-ī/-ya}}'' "my" is attached to nouns. In the latter case, ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-ya}}'' is attached to nouns whose construct state ends in a long vowel or diphthong (e.g. in the sound masculine plural and the dual), while ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-ī}}'' is attached to nouns whose construct state ends in a short vowel, in which case that vowel is elided (e.g. in the sound feminine plural, as well as the singular and broken plural of most nouns). Furthermore, ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-ū}}'' of the masculine sound plural is assimilated to ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-ī}}'' before ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-ya}}'' (presumably, ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-aw}}'' of masculine defective ''-an'' plurals is similarly assimilated to ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-ay}}''). Examples:
*From ''{{transl|ar|DIN|kitāb}}'' "book", pl. ''{{transl|ar|DIN|kutub}}'': ''{{transl|ar|DIN|kitāb-ī}}'' "my book" (all cases), ''{{transl|ar|DIN|kutub-ī}}'' "my books" (all cases), ''{{transl|ar|DIN|kitābā-ya}}'' "my two books (nom.)", ''{{transl|ar|DIN|kitābay-ya}}'' "my two books (acc./gen.)"
*From ''{{transl|ar|DIN|kalimah}}'' "word", pl. ''{{transl|ar|DIN|kalimāt}}'': ''{{transl|ar|DIN|kalimat-ī}}'' "my word" (all cases), ''{{transl|ar|DIN|kalimāt-ī}}'' "my words" (all cases)
*From ''{{transl|ar|DIN|dunyā}}'' "world", pl. ''{{transl|ar|DIN|dunyayāt}}'': ''{{transl|ar|DIN|dunyā-ya}}'' "my world" (all cases), ''{{transl|ar|DIN|dunyayāt-ī}}'' "my worlds" (all cases)
*From ''{{transl|ar|DIN|qāḍin}}'' "judge", pl. ''{{transl|ar|DIN|quḍāh}}'': ''{{transl|ar|DIN|qāḍiy-ya}}'' "my judge" (all cases), ''{{transl|ar|DIN|quḍāt-ī}}'' "my judges" (all cases)
*From ''{{transl|ar|DIN|muʿallim}}'' "teacher", pl. ''{{transl|ar|DIN|muʿallimūn}}'': ''{{transl|ar|DIN|muʿallim-ī}}'' "my teacher" (all cases), ''{{transl|ar|DIN|muʿallimiy-ya}}'' "my teachers" (all cases, see above)
*From ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾab}}'' "father": ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾabū-ya}}'' "my father (nom.)" (or is it assimilated?), ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾabā-ya}}'' "my father (acc.)", ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾabiy-ya}}'' "my father (gen.)"
Prepositions use ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-ī/-ya}}'', even though in this case it has the meaning of "me" (rather than "my"). The "sisters of {{transl|ar|DIN|ʾinna}}" can use either form (e.g. ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾinna-nī}}'' or ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾinn-ī}}''), but the longer form (e.g. ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾinna-nī}}'') is usually preferred.
The second-person masculine plural past tense verb ending ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-tum}}'' changes to the variant form ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-tumū}}'' before enclitic pronouns, e.g. ''{{transl|ar|DIN|katab-tumū-hu}}'' "you (masc. pl.) wrote it (masc.)".
=====Pronouns with prepositions=====
Some very common prepositions — including the proclitic preposition ''{{transl|ar|DIN|li-}}'' "to" (also used for indirect objects) — have irregular or unpredictable combining forms when the enclitic pronouns are added:
{|class="wikitable"
! Meaning !! Independent form !! With "... me" !! With "... you" (masc. sg.) !! With "... him"
|-
| "to", [[indirect object]] || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|li-}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|lī}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|laka}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|lahu}}''
|-
| "in", "with", "by" || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|bi-}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|bī}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|bika}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|bihi}}''
|-
| "in" || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|fī}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|fiyya}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|fīka}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|fīhi}}''
|-
| "to" || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾilā}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾilayya}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾilayka}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾilayhi}}''
|-
| "on" || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʿalā}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʿalayya}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʿalayka}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʿalayhi}}''
|-
| "with" || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|maʿa}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|maʿaya}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|maʿaka}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|maʿahu}}''
|-
| "from" || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|min}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|minnī}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|minka}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|minhu}}''
|-
| "on", "about" || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʿan}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʿannī}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʿanka}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʿanhu}}''
|-
|}
In the above cases, when there are two combining forms, one is used with "... me" and the other with all other person/number/gender combinations. (More correctly, one occurs before vowel-initial pronouns and the other before consonant-initial pronouns, but in Classical Arabic, only ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-ī}}'' is vowel-initial. This becomes clearer in the spoken varieties, where various vowel-initial enclitic pronouns exist.)
Note in particular:
*''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾilā}}'' "to" and ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʿalā}}'' "on" have irregular combining forms ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾilay-}}'', ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʿalay-}}''; but other pronouns with the same base form are regular, e.g. ''{{transl|ar|DIN|maʿa}}'' "with".
*''{{transl|ar|DIN|li-}}'' "to" has an irregular combining form ''{{transl|ar|DIN|la-}}'', but ''{{transl|ar|DIN|bi-}}'' "in, with, by" is regular.
*''{{transl|ar|DIN|min}}'' "from" and ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʿan}}'' double the final ''n'' before ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-ī}}''. (This should be interpreted as having an irregular stem with doubled ''n'', rather than unexpected use of ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-nī}}''. This is clear because in the modern spoken varieties, there are other enclitic pronouns beginning with a vowel, and the doubled-''n'' forms occur with them as well, e.g. ''{{transl|ar|DIN|minnak}}'' "from you (masc. sg.)", ''{{transl|ar|DIN|minnik}}'' "from you (fem. sg.)".)
=====Less formal pronominal forms=====
In a less formal Arabic, as in many spoken dialects, the endings ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-ka -ki -hu}}'' are pronounced as ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-ak -ik -uh}}'', swallowing all short case endings. Short case endings are often dropped even before consonant-initial endings, e.g. ''{{transl|ar|DIN|kitāb-ka}}'' "your book" (all cases), ''{{transl|ar|DIN|bayt-ka}}'' "your house" (all cases), ''{{transl|ar|DIN|kalb-ka}}'' "your dog" (all cases). When this produces a difficult cluster, either the second consonant is [[syllabic consonant|vocalized]], to the extent possible (e.g. ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ism-ka}}'' "your name", with syllabic ''m'' similar to English "bottom"), or an [[epenthesis|epenthetic]] vowel is inserted (e.g. ''{{transl|ar|DIN|isim-ka}}'' or ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ismi-ka}}'', depending on the behavior of the speaker's native variety).
===Demonstratives===
There are two [[demonstrative]]s ('''أسماء الإشارة''' ''{{transl|ar|ʾasmāʾ al-ʾišārah}}''), near-[[deixis|deictic]] ('this') and far-deictic ('that'):
{| class="wikitable"
|+"This, these"
! colspan=2|Gender
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
! rowspan=2|Masculine
!<small>nominative</small>
| rowspan=2|''{{transl|ar|DIN|hāḏā}}'' هذا'' ''
| ''{{transl|ar|hāḏāni}}'' هذان
| rowspan=4|''{{transl|ar|hāʾulāʾ(i)}} ''هؤلاء'' ''
|-
!<small>accusative/genitive</small>
| ''{{transl|ar|hāḏayni}}'' هذين
|-
! rowspan=2|Feminine
!<small>nominative</small>
| rowspan=2|''{{transl|ar|DIN|hāḏih(i)}} ''هذه'' ''
| ''{{transl|ar|hātāni}}'' هتان
|-
!<small>accusative/genitive</small>
| ''{{transl|ar|hātayni}}'' هتين
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+"That, those"
! colspan=2|Gender
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
! rowspan=2|Masculine
!<small>nominative</small>
| rowspan=2|''{{transl|ar|DIN|ḏālik(a)}} ''ذلك'' ''
| ''{{transl|ar|hātāni}}'' هتان
| rowspan=4|''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾulāʾik(a)}} ''أولئك'' ''
|-
!<small>accusative/genitive</small>
| ''{{transl|ar|hātayni}}'' هتين
|-
! rowspan=2|Feminine
!<small>nominative</small>
| rowspan=2|''{{transl|ar|DIN|tilka}} ''تلك'' ''
| ''{{transl|ar|tānika}}'' تانك
|-
!<small>accusative/genitive</small>
| ''{{transl|ar|taynika}}'' تينك
|-
|}
The dual forms are only used in very formal Arabic.
Some of the demonstratives ({{transl|ar|DIN|hāḏā, hāḏihi, hāḏāni, hāḏayni, hātāni, hātayni, hāʾulāʾi, ḏālika}}, and {{transl|ar|DIN|ʾulāʾika}} should be pronounced with a long "{{transl|ar|DIN|ā}}", although the unvocalised script doesn't contain an alif (ا). They have letter ـٰ "dagger {{transl|ar|DIN|alif}}" (ألف خنجرية ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾalif ḫanǧariyyah}}''), which doesn't exist on Arabic keyboards and is seldom written, even in the vocalised Arabic.
Koranic Arabic has another demonstrative, normally followed by a noun in a genitive construct and meaning "owner of":
{| class="wikitable"
|+"Owner of ..."
! colspan=2|Gender
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
! rowspan=3|Masculine
!<small>nominative</small>
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ḏū}}''
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ḏawā}}''
| ''{{transl|ar|ḏawū, ʾulū}}''
|-
!<small>accusative</small>
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ḏā}}''
| rowspan=2|''{{transl|ar|DIN|ḏaway}}''
| rowspan=2|''{{transl|ar|ḏawī, ʾulī}}''
|-
!<small>genitive</small>
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ḏī}}''
|-
! rowspan=3|Feminine
!<small>nominative</small>
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ḏātu}}''
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ḏawātā}}''
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ḏawātu, ʾulātu}}''
|-
!<small>accusative</small>
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ḏāta}}''
| rowspan=2|''{{transl|ar|DIN|ḏawātī}}''
| rowspan=2|''{{transl|ar|DIN|ḏawāti, ʾulāti}}''
|-
!<small>genitive</small>
| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ḏāti}}''
|-
|}
Note that the demonstrative and relative pronouns were originally built on this word. ''{{transl|ar|DIN|hāḏā}}'', for example, was originally composed from the prefix ''{{transl|ar|DIN|hā-}}'' "this" and the masculine accusative singular ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ḏā}}''; similarly, ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ḏālika}}'' was composed from ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ḏā}}'', an infixed syllable ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-li-}}'', and the [[clitic]] suffix ''{{transl|ar|DIN|-ka}}'' "you". These combinations had not yet become completely fixed in Koranic Arabic and other combinations sometimes occurred, e.g. ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ḏāka}}'', ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ḏālikum}}''. Similarly, the relative pronoun ''{{transl|ar|DIN|al-laḏī}}'' was originally composed based on genitive singular ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ḏī}}'', and the old Arab grammarians noted the existence of a separate nominative plural form ''{{transl|ar|DIN|al-laḏūna}}'' in the speech of the [[Banu Hothail|Huḏayl]] tribe in Koranic times.
This word also shows up in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], e.g. masculine ''zeh'' < ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ḏī}}'', feminine masculine ''zot'' < ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ḏāt-}}'', plural ''ʾeleh'' < ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾulī}}''.
===Relative pronoun===
The [[relative pronoun]] is conjugated as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|+Relative pronoun ("who, that, which")
! colspan=2|Gender
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
! rowspan=2|Masculine
!<small>nominative</small>
| rowspan=2|''{{transl|ar|DIN|al-laḏī}}'' الّذي'' ''
| ''{{transl|ar|al-laḏāni}}'' اللّذان'' ''
| rowspan=2|''{{transl|ar|al-laḏīn(a)}}'' الّذين'' ''
|-
!<small>accusative/genitive</small>
| ''{{transl|ar|al-laḏayni}}'' اللّذين'' ''
|-
! rowspan=2|Feminine
!<small>nominative</small>
| rowspan=2|''{{transl|ar|DIN|al-latī}}'' الّتي'' ''
| ''{{transl|ar|al-latāni}}'' اللّتان'' ''
| rowspan=2|''{{transl|ar|DIN|al-lātī}}'' اللّاتي'' ''
|-
!<small>accusative/genitive</small>
| ''{{transl|ar|al-latayni}}'' اللّتين'' ''
|-
|}
Note that the relative pronoun agrees in gender, number ''and case'' with the noun it modifies — as opposed to the normal situation in inflected languages such as [[Latin]] and [[German language|German]], where the gender and number agreement is with the modified noun, but the case marking follows the usage of the relative pronoun in the embedded clause (as in formal English "the man <u>who</u> saw me" vs. "the man <u>whom</u> I saw").
When the relative pronoun serves a function other than the subject of the embedded clause, a [[resumptive pronoun]] is required (e.g. ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ar-raǧulu l-laḏī tatakallamtu maʿa-<u>hu</u>}}'', literally "the man who I spoke with him").
The relative pronoun is normally omitted entirely when an indefinite noun is modified by a relative clause.
===Colloquial varieties===
The above system is mostly unchanged in the colloquial varieties, other than the loss of the dual forms and (for most varieties) of the feminine plural. Some of the more notable changes:
*The third-person ''{{transl|ar|-hi, -him}}'' variants disappear. On the other hand, the first person ''{{transl|ar|-nī/-ī/-ya}}'' variation is preserved exactly (including the different circumstances in which these variants are used), and new variants appear for many forms. For example, in [[Egyptian Arabic]], the second person feminine singular appears either as ''{{transl|ar|-ik}}'' or ''{{transl|ar|-ki}}'' depending on various factors (e.g. the phonology of the preceding word); likewise, the third person masculine singular appears variously as ''{{transl|ar|-u}}'', ''{{transl|ar|-hu}}'', or ''{{transl|ar|-}}'' (no ending, but stress is moved onto the preceding vowel, which is lengthened).
*In many varieties, the [[indirect object]] forms, which appear in Classical Arabic as separate words (e.g. ''{{transl|ar|lī}}'' "to me", ''{{transl|ar|lahu}}'' "to him"), become fused onto the verb, following a direct object. These same varieties generally develop a [[circumfix]] {{IPA|/ma-...-ʃ(i)/}} for negation (from Classical ''{{transl|ar|mā ... šayʾ}}'' "not ... a thing", composed of three separate words). This can lead to complicated [[agglutinative]] constructs, such as [[Egyptian Arabic]] {{IPA|/ma-katab-ha-ˈliː-ʃ/}} "he didn't write it (fem.) to me". (Egyptian Arabic in particular has many variant pronominal affixes used in different circumstances, and very intricate [[morphophonemic]] rules leading to a large number of complex alternations, depending on the particular affixes involved, the way they are put together, and whether the preceding verb ends in a vowel, a single consonant, or two consonants.)
*Other varieties instead use a separate Classical pseudo-pronoun ''{{transl|ar|iyyā-}}'' for direct objects (but in [[Hijazi Arabic]] the resulting construct fuses with a preceding verb).
*Affixation of dual and sound plural nouns has largely vanished. Instead, all varieties possess a separate preposition with the meaning of "of", which replaces certain uses of the [[construct state|construct]] genitive (to varying degrees, depending on the particular variety). In [[Moroccan Arabic]], the word is ''dyal'' (also ''d-'' before a noun), e.g. ''l-kitab dyal-i'' "my book", since the construct-state genitive is mostly unproductive. [[Egyptian Arabic]] has ''bitāʿ'', which agrees in gender and number with the preceding noun (feminine ''bitāʿit/bitaʿt'', plural ''bitūʿ''). In Egyptian Arabic, the construct-state genitive is still productive, hence either ''kitāb-i'' or ''il-kitāb bitāʿ-i'' can be used for "my book", but only ''il-muʿallimūn bitūʿ-i'' "my teachers".
*The declined relative pronoun has vanished. In its place is an indeclinable particle, usually ''illi'' or similar.
*Various forms of the demonstrative pronouns occur, usually shorter than the Classical forms. For example, Moroccan Arabic uses ''ha l-'' "this", ''dak l-/dik l-/duk l-'' "that" (masculine/feminine/plural). Egyptian Arabic is unusual in that the demonstrative ''follows'' the noun, e.g. ''il-kitāb da'' "this book", ''il-bint<sup>i</sup> di'' "this girl".
*Some of the independent pronouns have slightly different forms compared with their Classical forms. For example, usually forms similar to ''inta, inti'' "you (masc./fem. sg.)" occur in place of ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾanta, ʾanti}}'', and ''(n)iḥna'' "we" occurs in place of ''{{transl|ar|DIN|naḥnu}}''.
==Numerals==
===Cardinal numerals===
Numbers behave in a quite complicated fashion. ''{{transl|ar|DIN|wāḥid-}}'' "one" and ''{{transl|ar|DIN|iṯnān-}}'' "two" are adjectives, following the noun and agreeing with it. ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ṯalāṯat-}}'' "three" through ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʿašarat-}}'' "ten" require a following noun in the genitive plural, but disagree with the noun in gender, while taking the case required by the surrounding syntax. ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾaḥada ʿašarah}}'' "eleven" through ''{{transl|ar|DIN|tisʿata ʿašarah}}'' "nineteen" require a following noun in the accusative singular, agree with the noun in gender, and are invariable for case, except for ''{{transl|ar|DIN|iṯnā ʿašarah/iṯnay ʿašara}}'' "twelve".
The formal system of cardinal numerals, as used in Classical Arabic, is extremely complex. The system of rules is presented below. In reality, however, this system is never used: Large numbers are always written as numerals rather than spelled out, and are pronounced using a simplified system, even in formal contexts.
Example:
:Formal: ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾalfāni wa-tisʿu miʾatin wa-ṯnatā ʿašratan sanatan}}'' "2,912 years"
:Formal: ''{{transl|ar|DIN|baʿda ʾalfayni wa-tisʿi miʾatin wa-ṯnatay ʿašratan sanatan}}'' "after 2,912 years"
:Spoken: ''{{transl|ar|DIN|(baʿda) ʾalfayn wa-tisʿ miyya wa-ʾiṯnaʿšar sana(tan)}}'' "(after) 2,912 years"
Cardinal numerals ('''الأعداد الأصليّة''' ''{{transl|ar|DIN|al-ʾaʿdād al-ʾaṣliyyah}}'') from 0-10. Zero is ṣifr, from which the words "[[cipher]]" and "[[0 (number)|zero]]" are ultimately derived.
*0 ٠ ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ṣifr(un)}}'' (صفرٌ)
*1 ١ ''{{transl|ar|wāḥid(un)}}'' (واحدٌ)
*2 ٢ ''{{transl|ar|iṯnān(i)}}'' (اثنانِ)
*3 ٣ ''{{transl|ar|ṯalāṯa(tun)}}'' (ثلاثةٌ)
*4 ٤ ''{{transl|ar|ʾarbaʿa(tun)}}'' (أربعةٌ)
*5 ٥ ''{{transl|ar|ḫamsa(tun)}}'' (خمسةٌ)
*6 ٦ ''{{transl|ar|sitta(tun)}}'' (ستّةٌ)
*7 ٧ ''{{transl|ar|sabʿa(tun)}}'' (سبعةٌ)
*8 ٨ ''{{transl|ar|ṯamāniya(tun)}}'' (ثمانيةٌ)
*9 ٩ ''{{transl|ar|tisʿa(tun)}}'' (تسعةٌ)
*10 ١٠ ''{{transl|ar|ʿašara(tun)}}'' (عشرةٌ)
The endings in brackets are dropped in less formal Arabic and in pausa. Note that '''ة''' ({{transl|ar|DIN|tāʾ marbūṭah}}) is pronounced as simple /a/ in this cases. There are cases when {{transl|ar|DIN|-t}} in '''ة''' must be pronounced but not the rest of the ending.
اثنان ''{{transl|ar|DIN|iṯnān(i)}}'' is changed to اثنين ''{{transl|ar|DIN|iṯnayn(i)}}'' in oblique cases. This form is also commonly used in a less formal Arabic in the nominative case.
The numerals 1 and 2 are adjectives. Thus they follow the noun and agree with gender.
Numerals 3–10 have a peculiar rule of agreement known as polarity: A feminine referrer agrees with a numeral in masculine gender and vice versa, e.g. ''{{transl|ar|ṯalāṯu fatayātin}} ''(ثلاثُ فتياتٍ)'' '' 'three girls'. The noun counted takes indefinite genitive plural (as the attribute in a genitive construct).
Numerals 11 and 13–19 are indeclinable for case, perpetually in the accusative. Numbers 11 and 12 show gender agreement in the ones, and 13-19 show polarity in the ones. Number 12 also shows case agreement, reminiscent of the dual. The gender of عشر in numbers 11-19 agrees with the counted noun (unlike the standalone numeral 10 which shows polarity). The counted noun takes indefinite accusative singular.
{|class="wikitable"
! Number !! Informal !! Masculine nominative !! Masculine oblique !! Feminine nominative !! Feminine oblique
|-
| 11 || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾaḥada ʿašar}}'' (أحدَ عشر) || colspan=2| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾaḥada ʿašara}}'' || colspan=2| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾiḥdā ʿašratan}}''
|-
| 12 || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾiṯnā ʿašar}}'' (اثنا عشر) || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|iṯnā ʿašara}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|iṯnay ʿašara}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|iṯnatā ʿašratan}}'' || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|iṯnatay ʿašratan}}''
|-
| 13 || ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ṯalāṯata ʿašar}}'' (ثلاثةَ عشر) || colspan=2| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ṯalāṯata ʿašara}}'' || colspan=2| ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ṯalāṯa ʿašratan}}''
|-
|}
Unitary numbers from 20 on (i.e. 20, 30, ... 90, 100, 1000, 1000000, etc.) behave entirely as nouns, showing the case required by the surrounding syntax, no gender agreement, and a following noun in a fixed case. 20 through 90 require their noun to be in the accusative singular; 100 and up require the genitive singular. The unitary numbers themselves decline in various fashions:
*''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʿišrūna}}'' "20" through ''{{transl|ar|DIN|tisʿūna}}'' "90" decline as masculine plural nouns
*''{{transl|ar|DIN|miʾat-}}'' "100" (مئة or مائة) declines as a feminine singular noun
*''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾalf-}}'' "1000" (ألف) declines as a masculine singular noun
The numbers 20-99 are expressed with the units preceding the tens. There is agreement in gender with the numerals 1 and 2, and polarity for numerals 3–9. The whole construct is followed by the accusative singular indefinite.
*20 ''{{transl|ar|ʿišrūn(a)}}'' (عشرون) (dual of 10)
*21 ''{{transl|ar|wāḥidun wa-ʿišrūn(a)}}'' (واحد وعشرون)
*22 ''{{transl|ar|ʾiṯnāni wa-ʿišrūn(a)}}'' (إثنان وعشرون)
*23 ''{{transl|ar|ṯalāṯatu wa-ʿišrūn(a)}}'' (ثلاثة وعشرون)
*30 ''{{transl|ar|ṯalāṯūn(a)}}'' (ثلاتون)
*40 ''{{transl|ar|ʾarbaʿūn(a)}}'' (أربعون)
''{{transl|ar|DIN|miʾat-}}'' "100" and ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾalf-}}'' "1000" can themselves be modified by numbers (to form numbers such as 200 or 5,000) and will be declined appropriately. For example, ''{{transl|ar|DIN|miʾatāni}}'' "200" and ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾalfāni}}'' "2,000" with dual endings; ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ṯalāṯatu ʾālāfin}}'' "3,000" with ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾalf}}'' in the plural genitive, but ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ṯalāṯu miʾatin}}'' "300" since ''{{transl|ar|DIN|miʾat-}}'' appears to have no plural.
In compound numbers, the number formed with the last two digits dictates the declension of the associated noun, e.g. 212, 312 and 54312 would all behave like 12. Large compound numbers can have and e.g.:
*''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾalfun wa-tisʿu miʾatin wa-tisʿu sinīn(a)}}'' "1,909 years"
*''{{transl|ar|DIN|baʿda ʾalfin wa-tisʿi miʾatin wa-tisʿi sinīn(a)}}'' "after 1,909 years"
*''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾarbaʿatun wa-tisʿūna ʾalfan wa-ṯamānī miʾatin wa-ṯalāṯun wa-sittūna sanat(an)}}'' "94,863 years"
*''{{transl|ar|DIN|baʿda ʾarbaʿatin wa-tisʿīna ʾalfan wa-ṯamānī miʾatin wa-ṯalāṯin wa-sittīna sanat(an)}}'' "after 94,863 years"
*''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾiṯnā ʿašara ʾalfan wa-miʾatāni wa-ṯnatāni wa-ʿišrūna sanat(an)}}'' "12,222 years"
*''{{transl|ar|DIN|baʿda ṯnay ʿašara ʾalfan wa-miʾatayni wa-ṯnatayni wa-ʿišrīna sanat(an)}}'' "after 12,222 years"
*''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾiṯnā ʿašara ʾalfan wa-miʾatāni wa-sanatān(i)}}'' "12,202 years"
*''{{transl|ar|DIN|baʿda ṯnay ʿašara ʾalfan wa-miʾatayni wa-sanatayn(i)}}'' "after 12,202 years"
Note also the special construction when the final number created with the last two digits is 01 or 02:
*''{{transl|ar|ʾalfu laylatin wa-laylat(un)}}'' "1001 nights" ألف ليلة وليلة
*''{{transl|ar|miʾatu kutubin wa-kitābāni}}'' "102 books" مائة كتب وكتابان
'''Fractions''' of a whole smaller than "half" are expressed by the structure sg. ''{{transl|ar|DIN|fiʿl}}'' (فعل), pl. ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾafʿāl}}'' (أفعال).
*half ''{{transl|ar|niṣf(un)}}''(نصف)
*one-third ''{{transl|ar|ṯulṯ(un)}}''(ثلث)
*two-thirds ''{{transl|ar|ṯulṯān(i)}}''(ثلثان)
*one-fourth ''{{transl|ar|rubʿ(un)}}''(ربع)
*three-fourths ''{{transl|ar|ṯalaṯatu arbāʿ(in)}}'' (ثلاثة أرباع)
*etc.
===Ordinal numerals===
Ordinal numerals ('''الأعداد الترتيبية''' ''{{transl|ar|al-ʾaʿdād at-tartiyabiyyah}}'') higher than "second" are formed using the structure ''{{transl|ar|fāʿil(un)}}'', ''{{transl|ar|DIN|fāʿila(tun)}}'':
*m. أول ''{{transl|ar|ʾawwal(u)}}'', f. أولى ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾūlā}}'' "first"
*m. ثانٍ ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ṯānin}}'' (definite form: الثاني ''{{transl|ar|aṯ-ṯāniyy}}''), f. ثانية ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ṯāniyya(tun)}}'' "second"
*m. ثالث ''{{transl|ar|ṯāliṯ(un)}}'', f. ثالثة ''{{transl|ar|ṯāliṯa(tun)}}'' "third"
*m. رابع ''{{transl|ar|rābiʿ(un)}}'', f. رابعة ''{{transl|ar|rābiʿa(tun)}}'' "fourth"
*m. خامس ''{{transl|ar|ḫāmis(un)}}'', f. خامسة ''{{transl|ar|ḫāmisa(tun)}}'' "fifth"
*m. سادس ''{{transl|ar|sādis(un)}}'', f. سادسة ''{{transl|ar|sādisa(tun)}}'' "sixth"
*m. سابع ''{{transl|ar|sābiʿ(un)}}'', f. سابعة ''{{transl|ar|sābiʿa(tun)}}'' "seventh"
*m. ثامن ''{{transl|ar|ṯāmin(un)}}'', f. ثامنة ''{{transl|ar|ṯāmina(tun)}}'' "eighth"
*m. تاسع ''{{transl|ar|tāsiʿ(un)}}'', f. تاسعة ''{{transl|ar|tāsiʿa(tun)}}'' "ninth"
*m. عاشر ''{{transl|ar|ʿāšir(un)}}'', f. عاشرة ''{{transl|ar|ʿāšira(tun)}}'' "tenth"
etc.
They are adjectives, hence, there is agreement in gender with the noun, not polarity as with the cardinal numbers. Note that "sixth" uses a different, older root than the number six.
-->
==Етістік==
Араб етістіктері (فعل фиʿль), басқа семит тілдеріндегі сияқты өте күрделі болып келеді. Кез келген етістік үш әрібті дауыссызда тұратын түбірден құралады. Мысалы: . к-т-б "жаз", қ-р-ʾ "оқы", ʾ-к-л "же".
<!--Changes to the vowels in between the consonants, along with prefixes and/or suffixes, specify grammatical functions such as tense, person and number, in addition to changes in the meaning of the verb that embody grammatical concepts such as mood (e.g. indicative, subjunctive, imperative); voice (active or passive); causative; intensive; or reflexive. Since Arabic lacks an auxiliary verb "to have", constructions with li,ʿinda and maʿ and the added pronouns are used to describe possession.
Example:
عنده بيت (ʿindahū bayt.) -literally: With him (is) a house. → He has a house.
-->
==Синтаксисі==
===Ілік септігі (ʾiдāфаh)===<!-- "Arabic name" links to this section's title -->
<!--
A noun may be defined more closely by a subsequent noun in the genitive (إضافة {{transl|ar|DIN|ʾiḍāfah}}, literally "addition"). The relation is hierarchical; the first term (المضاف ''{{transl|ar|DIN|al-muḍāf}}'' "the thing added") governs the second term (المضاف إليه ''{{transl|ar|DIN|al-muḍāf ilayhi}}'' "the thing added to"). E. g. بيت رجل ''{{transl|ar|baytu raǧul(in)}}'' 'the house of a man', 'a man's house'. The construction as a whole represents a nominal phrase, the state of which is inherited from the state of the second term. The first term must "be in construct state", namely, it cannot carry the definite article nor the tanween. Genitive constructions of multiple terms are possible. In this case, all but the final term take [[construct state]], and all but the first member take the [[genitive case]].
This construction is typical for a Semitic language. In many cases the two members become a fixed coined phrase, the {{transl|ar|DIN|ʾiḍāfah}} being used as the equivalent of the [[compound (linguistics)|compound]] nouns used in some Indo-European languages (which does not exist in Arabic). بيت الطلبة ''{{transl|ar|DIN|baytu ṭ-ṭalabati}}'' thus may mean either 'house of the (certain, known) students' or 'the student hostel'.
Note: '''ة''' ({{transl|ar|DIN|tāʾ marbūṭah}}) of the first term must always have a pronounced {{transl|ar|DIN|-t}} (after /a/). This applies to spoken Arabic as well.
-->
===Сөздердің реті===
<!--Classical Arabic tends to prefer the word order VSO (verb before subject) rather than SVO (subject before verb). However, the word order is fairly flexible, since words are tagged by case endings. Subject pronouns are normally omitted except for emphasis or when using a participle as a verb (participles are not marked for person). Auxiliary verbs precede main verbs, and prepositions precede their objects.
Adjectives follow the noun they are modifying, and agree with the noun in case, gender, number, and state: For example, بنت جميلة "{{transl|ar|bint(un) ǧamīla(tun)}}" "a beautiful girl" but البنت الجميلة "{{transl|ar|al-bintu l-ǧamīla(tu)}}" "the beautiful girl". (Compare البنت جميلة "{{transl|ar|al-bint(u) ǧamīla(tun)}}" "the girl is beautiful".) Elative adjectives, however, precede their modifying noun, do not agree with it, and require that the noun be in the genitive case (see below).
Note that case endings are dropped in [[pausa]] forms, in colloquial Arabic and in less formal MSA ("Formal Spoken Arabic").
-->
===''ʾинна''===
إن ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾинна}}'' ~ "әлбетте" "әрине".
Мысалдар إنك أنت جميل "{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾиннака анта джамилун}}" "Сен әлбетте әдемісің" немесе إن السماء زرقاء "{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾинна с-сamāʾa зарқāʾу}}" "Аспан түсі көк әлбетте".
<!--
"{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾinna}}", along with its "sister" terms أن "{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾanna}}" ("that", as in "I think that ..."), "{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾinna}}" ("that" after قال/يقول ''{{transl|ar|DIN|qāla/yaqūlu}}'' "say"), ولكن "{{transl|ar|DIN|(wa-)lākin(na)}}" "but" and كأن "{{transl|ar|DIN|kaʾanna}}" "as if" require that they be immediately followed by a noun in the accusative case, or an attached pronominal suffix.
-->
== Дереккөздер ==
==Сілттемелер==
<references/>
{{Reflist}}
==Сыртқы сілттемелер==
== Сыртқы сілтемелер ==
*[http://quran.uk.net/documentation Құран арқылы араб грамматикасын меңгеру]
* [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=1644879.1644881 АСМ порталында]
{{Араб тілі}}
[[Санат:Араб тілі]]
[[Category:Араб тілі]]
[[ace:Nahu]]
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